Thinking as a whole. Types and processes of thinking. Development of thinking in personogenesis. Individual Thinking Styles

Thinking is the mental and psychological process of finding the right solution based on available data about a problem or task, as well as possible ways to solve it with the greatest benefit for the applicant or with the least cost to him.

This term can also be used to describe the process of cognition of the surrounding world in the physical or sensory plane. Thanks to him, imagination, memory and speech exist.

Sciences that study thinking include:

Philosophy: studies the interaction of thinking and being, and often considers it as consciousness, spirit, or psyche;
psychology is interested in it as the reason for the appearance of the results of work, as well as the process of its action, how it is carried out and due to what. Unlike logic, psychology studies it, including in a disturbed and distorted form;
neurophysiology studies the mechanisms by which it is carried out;
logic is only interested in true or correct thinking ();
sociology studies this concept from the point of view of social groups;
cybernetics is interested in it within the framework of artificial intelligence.

understanding or analyzing the conditions of what is happening;
solving a problem or establishing a search goal, and later a connection between known information and unknown information;
building a chain of goals that will lead to solving the existing problem;
analysis of one’s way of thinking, behavior or actions (reflection) allows a person to achieve goals and control himself.

The word “thinking” comes from the word “to think.” Thanks to the palatalization of sounds in the southern and eastern languages of the Slavic group, the sound combination [sl’] turned into [shl’]. Changes occurred in the Pre-Slavic period.

What theories are studied?

Depending on the understanding and perspective of studying the concept, the following theories and schools are distinguished:

Associative. Mental processes occur thanks to associations, and all that is in the psyche are sensory ideas connected by the same associations. Thinking consists of judgment and inference. A judgment is associated representations, a conclusion is judgments associated with each other, as a result of which a third judgment arises from them as a conclusion.
Associationist. The development of thinking is considered to be the process of accumulation of associations, which arises spontaneously.
Theory of the Wurzburg School. Thinking was considered an internal act or action. It was believed that thought develops through the interaction of different opinions. For the first time it was singled out as an independent activity. According to school representatives, it is not associated with practical activities, speech and sensory images.
Logics studies this process from the point of view of its structure of thoughts, correctness and incorrectness of reasoning, abstracting from the specific content of thoughts and their development.
IN Gestalt psychology is a sudden process of highlighting significant features of a given task.
Thinking as reflection, contemplation and a way of solving problems;
Thinking as an activity;
IN humanistic psychology The problems of self-actualization and their influence on thought processes are studied.
Information-cybernetic theory. It is based on the concepts of algorithm, operation, cycle and information. The first denotes a sequence of actions, the implementation of which leads to the solution of the problem; the second concerns the individual action, its character; the third refers to performing the same actions repeatedly until the desired result is obtained; the fourth includes a set of information transferred from one operation to another in the process of solving a problem.
Behaviorism considers thinking as learning, the formation of the skill of solving an intellectual practical problem.
Motivation theory studies the connection between thinking and the possible motivation that drives a person.

Thought processes in philosophy

Thinking is a distinctive feature of humans from animals, which allows us to study and understand the environment in a special way. Unlike sensations or feelings, it occurs consciously.

The psychophysiological problem in philosophy is the problem of the relationship between the human body and soul.

Aristotle saw it as the only effective way to understand the world. In his opinion, the goal of a thinking person is to generalize knowledge and move in his reasoning from particular to whole. The philosopher considered the body and soul of a person to be inseparable.

Socrates connected thinking with the moral development of man. It is part of self-improvement and knowledge of oneself in the world. A moral person cannot be non-thinking.

According to Marcus Aurelius, in addition to the body and soul, a person also has a mind.

During the medieval period, the scholastics believed that human reason was God's grace. Scholastic views were a synthesis of ancient and religious thoughts. Thinking was approved only for godly purposes, and not for studying the world around us. Philosophy and other sciences during this period were increasingly inferior to theology.

In modern times, thinking and being were the most important categories of study. Then the catchphrase of Rene Descartes appeared: “ I think therefore I am" His theory was later called Cartesianism. If it is impossible to explain the situation using reasonable judgments, the Cartesians turned to myths. According to the philosopher, thought does not interact in any way with the body and vice versa. However, the physical and mental in a person are connected only thanks to Divine Providence.

Spinoza considered the psychophysiological problem to be false. Thinking and body, according to the author, are only two attributes of one person, and not different matters, as in Descartes.

Voltaire also opposed Cartesian duality.

Leibniz put forward the theory of psychophysiological parallelism: two matters are not connected to each other and work in parallel.

Emmanuel Kant was an opponent of the Cartesians; he believed that thinking is based on experiment, and it is impossible to separate empiricism and rationalism. The philosopher created a typology of thinking, dividing formal and dialectical thinking, concrete and abstract, practical and dialectical.

In the 19th century, Jules Poincaré denied a priori knowledge and the ability of a person to objectively evaluate what is happening. Any theories, in his opinion, depend on the type of thinking of the author himself.

The German philosopher J. Molleshot declared the dependence of mental and spiritual processes on the physiological nature of man.

Scientists of the 50s of the 20th century considered reflex activity as both physiological and psychological.

Thinking in psychology

Cognitive

Thinking is associated with information processing and is studied in this context. Its development is possible with the emergence of symbolic functions and the formation of concepts. Internal cognitive structures include images and concepts, thanks to them a person has the opportunity to study the world around him, understand it and apply knowledge in further cognitive activity.

She strives to study it; memory and perception are not isolated. Cognitive psychology has developed a huge arsenal of methods and methods, and has also developed a lot of theoretical models that can explain some aspects of the thought process.

Clinical

When studying, the following factors are taken into account: the patient’s appearance, speech, behavior. A reliable analysis requires studying each of its stages and the entire mental course of the patient. When contacting a patient, it is important to establish the presence or absence of misconceptions, fears, false ideas, and also to find out what the patient’s attitude towards them is now and previously; in addition, it is necessary to understand how a person’s thinking affects behavior.

To analyze the thought process of patients, clinical psychology also uses drawings, diagrams, or letters written to someone.

In pathopsychological diagnostics, the following methods are used for analysis:

folding pictures;
understanding literary texts;
determining the sequence of events and others.

Analysis in clinical psychology is important for determining the disease and, accordingly, the course of treatment.

Psychoanalysis

In psychoanalysis, thinking is viewed as motivational process, i.e. its type and character are associated with the person’s motivation, but not with an active understanding of one’s goal or needs, but with deep motivation. For example, S. Freud, in his work on wit and its relationship to the unconscious, argued that wit is the result or sign of a creative thought process that arose due to the dissatisfaction of one’s needs in the past.

These processes are associated either with deep motives or with motives for getting what you want, which can also be deep, and therefore may not be recognized by a person.

Their connection with motivation has been studied in psychoanalysis only indirectly. Psychoanalysis does not provide information about how motivation practically influences the organization and structure of this process.

E. Bleuler owns the theory of autistic thinking in psychoanalysis. The author believes that autism is a form in which a person’s internal world dominates over the external one. There is no clear difference between autistic and normal thought processes, since the autistic is able to penetrate the normal. Autistic processes give expression to a person's hidden tendencies and drives. There is no time for this form, because it is not important.

Human thinking, according to E. Bleuler, is connected and explained by affective needs, fears, desires or complexes. Sometimes people unconsciously choose a certain form to protect themselves from the outside world.

Physiology

The thought process is both the highest form of reflection of reality and the psychological act of achieving a goal. It is only possible if there is motivation. Mental activity is realized through speech. In accordance with neurophysiological and neuropsychological studies, object-figurative thinking exists thanks to the right hemisphere of the cerebrum, and abstract and verbal-logical thinking - to the left. Impaired mental activity is possible with damage to the parieto-occipital and temporal regions of the left hemisphere of the brain.

Social Psychology

Thinking is one of the most important characteristics of a person and society. Its development is possible only in society and through communication with other members of this society. Its emergence in sociology is a dialogue with oneself.

Human interaction with society continuously influences thought processes. People spend at least a third of their lives learning to survive in society. Some scientists believe that this period is much longer and amounts to a person’s entire life.

The socialization of a person begins from birth, when parents teach him basic skills, instill in him some moral qualities, and lay in his offspring some model of behavior in society. Afterwards, a person is influenced by his friends, classmates, and later by his spouse, colleagues and other people. The influence of society is inevitable, since in order to live in society, it is necessary to adapt and adapt to the general rules in society. Even with deliberate resistance to established norms of life, an unconscious influence on a person’s thought processes is inevitable, because a person does not live separately in the forest or in the desert, but lives in society.

The collective unconscious, in accordance with the works of K.-G. Jung, is universal and can be found everywhere. These are archetypes that existed before the birth of man. Archetypes may include patterns of behavior, feelings, and experiences that can be found in mythological motifs.

The personal unconscious is those traits or elements of a person’s personality that were suppressed in him due to upbringing. You can make a person forget memories, painful thoughts, unconscious feelings, complexes.

Is it possible to develop these skills in yourself?

You can develop thinking skills throughout your life. The main thing is not to stop there, to be curious and not to rely on the unconscious. To develop these abilities, it is recommended to ask yourself the right questions, and find other right questions for your questions, since the search for an answer generates an even greater search for answers. The more a person knows, the more he realizes that there is still much he does not understand.

A person needs the right questions to filter out unnecessary information that does not bring any benefit and only takes up a person’s thoughts and time. Asking questions at the right time helps develop thinking and memory.

For development, it is important to be able to switch from one information to another, as well as to sense the relationship between them for the further use of this information. It is important to remain curious, thoughtful and interested in information.

THINKING

Only at the beginning 20th century concrete studies of M. acquired the features of genuine historicism and works appeared that systematized the previously accumulated numerous. ethnographic quality data. the originality of M. peoples standing at relatively low levels of socio-economic. and cultural development (L. Lévy-Bruhl, Veyle, etc.). Despite all the unsatisfactory theoretical interpretations of the facts stated in them. These materials of the work had the significance that they showed the inconsistency of the position about the immutability of human laws. spirit and introduced the idea of qualities into the doctrine of M. changes that it undergoes in the course of history. development. The second direction of research, which played an important role in understanding the nature and mechanisms of M., consisted of experimental work devoted to the study of human prehistory. M. is his geneticist. roots in the animal world. Already the first systematic Studies (V. Köhler, R. Yerkes, H. N. Ladygina-Kots) of the intellectual behavior of great apes have shown that higher animals have complex activities, which are similar in nature to M., although they occur in the form of external movement. operations (“practical”, or, according to Pavlov, “manual thinking” of animals). The study of the intellectual behavior of higher animals, deepening the genetics. approach to M., at the same time, raised the problem of fundamental qualities for specific research. thinking about change. processes during the transition to humans. Concretizing Engels' position on the role of labor in the formation of man, Vygotsky showed that "M." animals turns into genuine, human. M. under the influence of crossing the line of development of practical. objective actions and the line of development of vocal reactions, which must occur in conditions of collective labor activity. As a result, vocal signals, through which animals communicate, are increasingly transformed from instinctively expressive to reflective of content and become carriers of generalizations that are developed into practical ones. experience, i.e. acquire the function of meaning. On the other hand, practical. intellectual behavior is “verified”, mediated by language, verbal concepts, and because of this it turns out to be capable of acquiring an internal form in the course of further development. speech processes characteristic of verbal-logical. M. Studies of the intellectual behavior of apes gave, on the other hand, impetus to the experimental study of the processes of practical, so-called. “visually effective” M. and in humans. Almost immediately after the work of V. Köhler were started with the help of the fundamental method of multiples he developed. studies on children. These studies made it possible to identify and describe visual-action processes. M. as components of the necessary stage of intelligence. child development. In further works, among which the studies of A. Wallon and J. Piaget are widely known, it was experimentally shown that verbal-logical. M. develops from practical. intellectual operations through their “interiorization”, i.e. through the transition of previously external objective actions into internal, mental actions, which take place in the conditions of the child’s communication with others and in connection with the success of his speech development. Great contribution to the theory of ontogenetics. The development of mathematics was contributed by the research of L. S. Vygotsky and his school, devoted to the problem of the active formation of thinking. processes. The significance of these studies is that M.’s development is considered not as occurring on its own under the influence of the accumulation of knowledge and its systematization, but as a process of the child’s assimilation of socially and historically developed intelligence. actions and operations. Since this assimilation has a strictly natural character, by controlling it, it is possible to actively and systematically form the necessary thinking in students. processes - to program their development (P. Ya. Galperin).

Thinking is a cognitive process that is characterized by an indirect and generalized reflection of reality in the activities of each individual. Phenomena and objects of reality have relationships and properties due to perception and sensations. Thinking has several features, among which the following stand out:

Indirect character– each individual experiences the world indirectly, because each property is known through another interrelated property. In this case, thinking is based on perception, sensations and ideas, i.e. previously acquired theoretical and practical knowledge and skills;

Generality– is a process of cognition of what is essential and common in the objects of existing reality, since all the properties of similar objects are closely interrelated. The general can exist and manifest itself only in a specific individual object. This feature is expressed through language and speech. A verbal designation can be attributed to a specific object or a group of similar properties.

Basic forms of thinking.

The thinking of each individual occurs in two forms: inferences and judgments. Let's look at the forms of thinking in more detail:

Inference– is an effective conclusion consisting of several judgments, allowing us to gain new knowledge and practical skills about a specific phenomenon or object that exists in the objective world. Inferences can come in several forms: deductive, inductive and by analogy;

Judgment– a certain form of thinking that reflects the objects of reality in specific relationships and connections. Each individual judgment represents a specific thought about an object. A sequence of several judgments with a sequential connection is necessary for the mental solution of a problem or question, which constitutes a certain reasoning. Reasoning itself acquires practical meaning only in cases where it leads to a specific conclusion or conclusion. So inferences can become the answer to the question of interest.

Basic types of thinking.

Depending on the location of words, actions or images in the thought process, as well as their interaction with each other, several types of thinking are distinguished. Each of them has its own characteristics (theoretical or practical). Let's take a closer look at the main types of thinking:

Visually effective– this type of mental activity of an individual is based directly on the perception of a specific object;

Subject-effective– this type of thinking is aimed at solving issues and problems in the conditions of constructive, production, organizational, as well as all types of practical activities of citizens. In this case, practical thinking acts as constructive technical thinking, allowing each person to solve technical problems independently. The process itself represents the interaction of practical and mental components of the work. Every moment of abstract thinking is closely interconnected with the practical actions of the individual. Among the characteristic features are: attention to detail, clearly expressed observation, the ability to use attentiveness and skills in a specific situation, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action, operating with spatial patterns and images. Only in this way is the unity of will and thought maximally manifested in this type of thinking;

Visual-figurative– the entire process of thinking is characterized by reliance on images or ideas, abstract thoughts, which allows a person to embody generalizations in specific images;

Verbal-logical (abstract) thinking– this type of thinking is carried out through logical connections and structures of logical operations and concepts. It is aimed at identifying specific patterns in the surrounding world and human society, since it reflects general relationships and connections. In this case, concepts play a dominant role, and images act as a secondary one.

Empirical thinking(from Greek empeiria - experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest, elementary stage of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.

As noted by the famous psychologist V. M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist and theorist as the only example of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort.

The mental activity of the theorist is concentrated primarily on the first part of the path of knowledge - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of a practitioner is focused mainly on the second part - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that “getting” into practice, for the sake of which a theoretical retreat is made.

A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to concentrate attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem something special and individual that was not fully included in the theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from reflection to action.

In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, cognitive, regulatory and energetic capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the prompt setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans and programs, and greater self-control in stressful operating conditions.

Theoretical thinking reveals universal relations and explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of conceptual models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures transformative human activity. Theoretical thinking is inextricably linked with practice, but in its final results it has relative independence; it is based on previous knowledge and, in turn, serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.

Depending on the standard/non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures, algorithmic, discursive, heuristic and creative thinking are distinguished.

Algorithmic thinking focused on pre-established rules, a generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems.

Discursive(from Latin discursus - reasoning) thinking is based on a system of interconnected conclusions.

Heuristic thinking(from the Greek heuresko - I find) is productive thinking, consisting of solving non-standard problems.

Creative thinking- thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.

There is also a distinction between reproductive and productive thinking.

Reproductive thinking- reproduction of previously obtained results. In this case, thinking merges with memory.

Productive thinking- thinking leading to new cognitive results.

1. Thinking - as a cognitive process

1.1 General idea of thinking

M emission - this is the highest form of human cognitive activity, a socially conditioned mental process of indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering something essentially new.

The main features of the thinking process are:

Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.
Connection with practical activities.
Inextricable connection with speech.
The presence of a problematic situation and the absence of a ready answer.

Generalizedreflection in reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to that common thing that unites a similar number of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean by this word tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc.

Indirectreflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or in determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” are just symbols, conventional images, behind which there should not be specific fruits or compounds.

Thinking arises from practical activities, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, the correctness of thinking is tested during practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech. Thinking operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be clarified.

Thinking takes place only when there is problematic situation. If you can get by with the old ways of acting, then thinking is not required.

1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other human cognitive processes, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and are important to varying degrees in solving different problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant when solving theoretical problems, some - when solving practical issues.

Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:

Quick thinking - the ability to find the right solutions under time pressure

Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the intended plan of action when the situation changes or the criteria for the right decision change

Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem

1.3 Thinking and intelligence

Intelligence- the totality of a person’s mental abilities that ensure the success of his cognitive activity.

In a broad sense, this term is understood as the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in a narrow sense - his mental abilities.

In psychology there is a concept structures of intelligence However, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a particular psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Cattell identified two sides in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( “ fluid"), and static or crystallized ( “ crystallized"). According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It depends more on the person's genotype. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and is manifested when solving problems that require relevant skills and experience.

You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:

· Ability to learn (quickly acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities);

· Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;

· Ability to solve practical problems and problem situations.

· The amount of available long-term and RAM memory.

Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain area, tests that evaluate a person’s intellectual development in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special intelligence tests, for example, abstract-logical or spatial thinking, verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intelligence tests include:

Stanford-Binet test: assesses the child's intellectual development.

Wechsler test: assesses the verbal and nonverbal components of intelligence.

Raven's test: nonverbal intelligence.

Eysenck test (IQ)-determines the general level of intelligence development

When studying intelligence in psychology, there are two approaches: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.

1.4 Basic types of thinking

As the human psyche develops in the process of socialization, thinking successively passes through four stages.

The first way a child thinks is objective-effective thinking(ages 1 to 3 years), that is, thinking in the form of practical actions. Young children learn about the world around them and make their first conclusions about its structure by testing objects with their hands, taking them apart and breaking them.

The next step is visual-figurative- thinking in the form of visual images and ideas (visual, auditory, tactile). It is most developed between the ages of 4 and 7 years, but persists in adults. This thinking is based on practical reality, but can already create and store images that have no direct analogue in sensations (fairy-tale characters).

Abstract-logical(abstract or conceptual) thinking works in the form of abstract concepts, symbols and numbers. In this case, a person operates with concepts without dealing with experience gained through the senses. For example, the ethical terms “justice” and “conscience”, the mathematical terms “degree” and “derivative”, the economic terms “balance” or “profit” are abstract concepts and cannot be perceived directly by a person through his senses.

1.5 Forms of thinking

The main forms of thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences.

Concept - a thought that reflects the general, essential characteristics of objects and phenomena.

For example, the concept of “person” includes such essential features as labor activity, upright walking, articulate speech, etc. The difference between a concept and an idea is that an idea is always an image, and a concept is a thought expressed in a word. In addition, a representation includes both essential and non-essential features, while a concept includes only essential ones. The content of concepts is revealed in judgments.

Judgment - is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena or between their properties and characteristics.

From two or more judgments, you can build the next most complex form of thinking - inference.

Abstraction- highlighting one side of an object or phenomenon that in reality does not exist as a separate side. As a result of abstraction, concepts are formed. As an example, we can take the concept of “reliability”, as a low probability of breakdown of some type of household appliance.

Generalization- highlighting common essential properties in compared objects. For example, after analyzing sales of individual types of bread, the owner of a bakery comes to the conclusion that butter buns are in best demand, regardless of their size and fillings.

Specification- an operation inverse to generalization, the identification of characteristics of an object or phenomenon that are characteristic of it, not related to the features common to the class of the object or phenomenon. For example, the owner of a mini-bakery, having discovered the increased demand for buns, decides to bake them a new type - with sesame seeds and strawberry filling.

Thinking is the mental process of modeling the laws of the surrounding world on the basis of axiomatic provisions. However, in psychology there are many other definitions.

Information received by a person from the surrounding world allows a person to imagine not only the external, but also the internal side of an object, to imagine objects in their absence, to foresee their changes over time, to rush with thought into the vast distances and the microworld. All this is possible thanks to the thinking process.

Process Features

The first feature of thinking is its indirect nature. What a person cannot know directly, directly, he knows indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is always based on the data of sensory experience - sensations, perceptions, ideas - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge. Indirect knowledge is mediated knowledge.

The second feature of thinking is its generality. Generalization as knowledge of the general and essential in the objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are connected with each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the individual, in the concrete.

People express generalizations through speech and language. A verbal designation refers not only to a single object, but also to a whole group of similar objects. Generalization is also inherent in images (ideas and even perceptions). But there it is always limited by clarity. The word allows one to generalize limitlessly. Philosophical concepts of matter, motion, law, essence, phenomenon, quality, quantity, etc. - the broadest generalizations expressed in words.

Basic Concepts

The results of people's cognitive activity are recorded in the form of concepts. Concept– is a reflection of the essential features of the subject. The concept of an object arises on the basis of many judgments and conclusions about it. The concept, as a result of generalizing the experience of people, is the highest product of the brain, the highest level of knowledge of the world.

Human thinking occurs in the form of judgments and inferences. Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects the objects of reality in their connections and relationships. Each judgment is a separate thought about something. The sequential logical connection of several judgments, necessary in order to solve any mental problem, understand something, find an answer to a question, is called reasoning. Reasoning has practical meaning only when it leads to a certain conclusion, a conclusion. The conclusion will be the answer to the question, the result of the search for thought.

Inference- this is a conclusion from several judgments, giving us new knowledge about objects and phenomena of the objective world. Inferences can be inductive, deductive, or by analogy.

Thinking and other mental processes

Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge of reality. The sensory basis of thinking is sensations, perceptions and ideas. Through the senses - these are the only channels of communication between the body and the outside world - information enters the brain. The content of information is processed by the brain. The most complex (logical) form of information processing is the activity of thinking. Solving the mental problems that life poses to a person, he reflects, draws conclusions and thereby learns the essence of things and phenomena, discovers the laws of their connection, and then, on this basis, transforms the world.

Thinking is not only closely connected with sensations and perceptions, but it is formed on the basis of them. The transition from sensation to thought is a complex process, which consists, first of all, in isolating and isolating an object or its sign, in abstracting from the concrete, individual and establishing the essential, common to many objects.

For human thinking, the relationship is more important not with sensory knowledge, but with speech and language. In a more strict sense, speech is a process of communication mediated by language. If language is an objective, historically established system of codes and the subject of a special science - linguistics, then speech is a psychological process of formulating and transmitting thoughts through the means of language. Modern psychology does not believe that internal speech has the same structure and the same functions as expanded external speech. By internal speech, psychology means a significant transitional stage between the plan and developed external speech. A mechanism that allows you to recode the general meaning into a speech utterance, i.e. inner speech is, first of all, not a detailed speech utterance, but only a preparatory stage.

However, the inextricable connection between thinking and speech does not mean that thinking can be reduced to speech. Thinking and speech are not the same thing. Thinking does not mean talking to yourself. Evidence of this can be the possibility of expressing the same thought in different words, as well as the fact that we do not always find the right words to express our thoughts.

Types of thinking

Thinking without imagery (eng. imageless thought) is thinking “free” from sensory elements (images of perception and representation): understanding the meaning of verbal material often occurs without the appearance of any images in consciousness.
Thinking is visual. A method for solving intellectual problems based on internal visual images.
Discursive thinking (discursus – reasoning) is a person’s verbal thinking mediated by past experience. Verbal-logical, or verbal-logical, or abstract-conceptual thinking. Acts as a process of coherent logical reasoning, in which each subsequent thought is conditioned by the previous one. The varieties and rules (norms) of discursive thinking are studied in most detail in logic.
Complex thinking is the thinking of a child and an adult, carried out in the process of unique empirical generalizations, the basis for which are the relationships between things revealed in perception.
Visual-effective thinking is one of the types of thinking, distinguished not by the type of problem, but by the process and method of solution; the solution to a non-standard problem is sought through the observation of real objects, their interactions and the implementation of material transformations in which the subject of thinking himself takes part. The development of intelligence begins with it both in phylo- and ontogenesis.
Visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking that is carried out on the basis of transformations of images of perception into images-representations, further changes, transformations and generalization of the subject content of ideas that form a reflection of reality in an imaginative-conceptual form.
Figurative thinking is a process of cognitive activity aimed at reflecting the essential properties of objects (their parts, processes, phenomena) and the essence of their structural relationship.
Practical thinking is a thinking process that occurs in the course of practical activity, in contrast to theoretical thinking aimed at solving abstract theoretical problems.
Productive thinking is a synonym for “creative thinking” associated with solving problems: new, non-standard intellectual tasks for the subject. The most difficult task facing human thought is the task of knowing oneself.
Theoretical thinking - the main components are meaningful abstractions, generalizations, analysis, planning and reflection. Its intensive development in its subjects is facilitated by educational activities.

Basic thought processes

Human mental activity is the solution of various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the methods of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems. Mental operations are varied. This is analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, specification, generalization, classification. Which logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he is subjected to mental processing.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis is the mental decomposition of a whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions, and relationships from the whole. Synthesis is the opposite process of thought to analysis; it is the combination of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental. Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activities of man. In their work, people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Their practical mastery led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison

Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to identify one or more of their characteristics by which the comparison will be made. The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multilateral, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be at different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person’s thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from visible to hidden, from appearance to essence.

Abstraction

Abstraction is the process of mental abstraction from certain features, aspects of a particular thing in order to better understand it. A person mentally identifies some feature of an object and examines it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracting from them. Isolated study of individual features of an object while simultaneously abstracting from all others helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, man was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification

Concretization is a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it. Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Mental activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to identify what they have in common, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them. Generalization, therefore, is the identification of the general in objects and phenomena, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Stages of thinking development

The ability to think, as a reflection of the connections and relationships existing between things, manifests itself in a person in a rudimentary form already in the first months of life. Further development and improvement of this ability occurs in connection with: a) the child’s life experience, b) his practical activities, c) mastering speech, d) the educational influence of schooling. This process of thinking development is characterized by the following features:

In early childhood, the child’s thinking is visual and effective in nature; it is associated with the direct perception of objects and manipulation with them. The connections between things reflected in this process are initially of a generalized nature, only being replaced later by more precise differentiation under the influence of life experience. Thus, already in the first year of life, a child, having burned himself on a shiny teapot, withdraws his hand from other shiny objects. This action is based on the formation of a conditioned reflex connection between the skin sensation of a burn and the visual sensation of the shiny surface of the object on which the child was burned. However, later, when touching shiny objects in some cases was not accompanied by a feeling of a burn, the child begins to associate this sensation more accurately with the temperature characteristics of the objects.
At this stage, the child is not yet capable of abstract thinking: he develops concepts (still very elementary) about things and the connections that exist between them only in the process of directly operating with things, actually connecting and separating things and their elements. A child of this age thinks only about what is the subject of activity; his thinking about these things ceases along with the cessation of activity. Neither the past, nor even the future are yet the content of his thinking; he is not yet able to plan his activities, foresee its results and purposefully strive for them.
A child’s mastery of speech by the end of the second year of life significantly expands his ability to generalize things and their properties. This is facilitated by naming different objects with the same word (the word “table” equally means dining, kitchen, and writing tables, thus helping the child form a general concept of a table), as well as naming one object in different words with a broader and more narrow meaning.
The concepts of things formed by the child are still very strongly connected with their specific images: gradually these images, thanks to the participation of speech, become more and more generalized. The concepts with which the child operates at this stage of thinking development are initially simply of an objective nature: an undifferentiated image of the object he is thinking about appears in the child’s mind. Subsequently, this image becomes more differentiated in its content. Accordingly, the child’s speech develops: first, only nouns are noted in his dictionary, then adjectives and, finally, verbs appear.
A significant restructuring of the thinking process occurs in children in preschool age. Communication with adults, from whom children receive verbal descriptions and explanations of phenomena, expands and deepens children's knowledge about the world around them. In this regard, the child’s thinking gets the opportunity to focus on phenomena that are only thought and are no longer the object of his direct activity. The content of concepts begins to be enriched due to conceivable connections and relationships, although reliance on concrete, visual material remains for a long time, right up to primary school age. The child begins to be interested in the causal connections and relationships of things. In this regard, he begins to compare and contrast phenomena, more accurately highlight their essential features, and operate with the simplest abstract concepts (material, weight, number, etc.). With all this, the thinking of preschool children is characterized by imperfections, replete with numerous errors and inaccuracies, which is due to the lack of necessary knowledge and insufficient life experience.
At primary school age, children begin to develop the ability for purposeful mental activity. This is facilitated by a program and teaching methods aimed at communicating to children a certain system of knowledge, assimilation through exercise under the guidance of a teacher of certain thinking techniques (during explanatory reading, when solving problems on certain rules, etc.), enrichment and development in the process of teaching correct speech . The child increasingly begins to use abstract concepts in the process of thinking, but in general his thinking continues to be based on concrete perceptions and ideas.
The ability for abstract logical thinking develops and improves in middle school and, especially, in high school age. This is facilitated by mastering the fundamentals of science. In this regard, the thinking of high school students proceeds on the basis of scientific concepts, which reflect the most essential features and interconnections of phenomena. Students are accustomed to a precise logical definition of concepts; their thinking in the learning process acquires a planned, conscious character. This is expressed in purposeful thinking, in the ability to build evidence of the propositions put forward or analyzed, analyze them, find and correct errors made in reasoning. Speech—the student’s ability to accurately and clearly express his thoughts in words—becomes of great importance.

Thinking Strategies

When solving any problem, we use one of three thinking strategies.

Random search. This strategy follows trial and error. That is, an assumption is formulated (or a choice is made), after which its validity is assessed. So assumptions are made until the right solution is found.
Rational overkill. With this strategy, a person explores a certain central, least risky assumption, and then, changing one element each time, cuts off the wrong directions of the search. By the way, artificial intelligence operates on this principle.
Systematic search. With this thinking strategy, a person embraces with his mind the entire set of possible hypotheses and systematically analyzes them one by one. Systematic enumeration is rarely used in everyday life, but it is this strategy that allows you to most fully develop plans for long-term or complex actions.

Psychologist Carol Dweck has spent her career studying performance and mindset, and her latest research shows that your predisposition to success depends more on your attitude than on your IQ. Dweck discovered that there are two types of mindsets: a fixed mindset and a growth mindset.

If you have a fixed mindset, you believe that you are who you are and cannot change it. This creates problems when life challenges you: if you feel like you have to do more than you can handle, you feel hopeless. People with a growth mindset believe that they can become better if they put in the effort. They outperform people with a fixed mindset, even if they have lower intelligence. People with a growth mindset approach challenges as opportunities to learn something new.

No matter what type of mindset you currently have, you can develop a growth mindset.

Don't remain helpless. Each of us finds ourselves in situations where we feel helpless. The question is how we respond to this feeling. We can either learn a lesson and move on, or we can despair. Many successful people would not have become so if they had succumbed to feelings of helplessness.

Walt Disney was fired from the Kansas City Star because he "lacked imagination and had no good ideas," Oprah Winfrey was fired from her job as a TV anchor in Baltimore because she was "too emotionally involved" into their stories,” Henry Ford had two failed car companies before starting Ford, and Steven Spielberg was expelled from the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts several times.

Give in to passion. Inspired people relentlessly pursue their passions. There may always be someone more talented than you, but what you lack in talent you can make up for with passion. Passion keeps the desire for excellence in inspired people undiminished.

Warren Buffett recommends finding your passion using the 5/25 technique. Make a list of 25 things that are important to you. Then cross off 20 starting from the bottom. The remaining 5 are your true passions. Everything else is just entertainment.

Take action. The difference between people with a growth mindset is not that they are braver than others and are able to overcome their fears, but that they understand that fear and anxiety are paralyzing, and the best way to deal with paralysis is to do something. People with a growth mindset have an inner core and realize that they don't have to wait for the perfect moment to move forward. By taking action, we transform worry and anxiety into positive, directed energy.
Walk an extra kilometer or two. Strong people do their best even on their worst days. They always push themselves to go a little further.
Expect results. People with a growth mindset understand that they will fail from time to time, but that doesn't stop them from expecting results. Expecting results keeps you motivated and pushes you to improve.
Be flexible. Everyone faces unexpected difficulties. Inspired people with a growth mindset see this as an opportunity to become better, not a reason to give up on a goal. When life challenges, strong people will search for options until they get results.

Research shows that chewing gum helps improve thinking skills. Chewing gum increases blood flow to the brain. Such people have better ability to concentrate and remember information. It is good to use chewing gums that do not contain sugar to avoid any side effects.
When you study, try to activate all your senses. Different parts of the brain remember different sensory data. For example, one part of the brain is responsible for recognizing and remembering pictures, and another is responsible for sounds.
As mentioned, puzzles can actually be very useful. They force you to think deeply about something. They stimulate the brain and also awaken a person’s ability to comprehend. Try buying a puzzle magazine to get more exercise.
After a healthy sleep, it will be easier for you to think.
Mediation helps improve thinking. Every day, devote 5 minutes to such activities in the morning and the same amount of time before bed.