Thirteen Years War (1454-1466). Thirteen Years 'War Thirteen Years' War

The Thirteen Years' War

The Thirteen Years' War (1654-1667), the conflict between the Kingdom of Moscow, Rzeczpospolita and Sweden, can be divided into three stages. Its origins lie in the Cossack uprising of Bohdan Khmelnitsky against the Commonwealth, which began in 1648. Russia first provided military assistance to the Cossacks and provided favorable conditions for trade, and later, after the Polish invasion of Ukraine in 1653, entered into an alliance with the Cossacks and entered the war in 1654.

With the invasion of a hundred thousandth army, including the allied Cossacks, under the command of Moscow Tsar Alexei, the first stage of the war began in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Muscovites were able to achieve their initial success by crushing Polish forces and capturing several important cities such as Mogilev, Smolensk and Vitebsk.

Russian troops and Cossacks managed to liberate most of the Ukrainian lands and invaded Polish lands near Brest. The Polish-Lithuanian troops fought back, but were unable to dislodge the Russians from their positions. The Polish king Jan II Casimir, who fled the country, managed to negotiate an armistice with the Russians, and in 1656 hostilities between the two countries temporarily ceased for three years.

While Sweden was embroiled in the first Northern War (1655-1660) against Poland and Denmark, Moscow rulers sought to reclaim the lands previously conquered by Sweden and capture several cities, including Dinaburg [Rus. Dvinsk, currently Daugavpils], Yuriev [Dorpat, Dorpat, today Tartu], Kexholm [formerly Korela, Kyakisalmi, now Priozersk].

However, the Russians failed under the walls of Riga, which they had besieged since the summer of 1656, primarily due to a lack of naval forces that prevented them from blocking the city's supply routes. The Swedes launched a powerful counter-offensive, scattering the Russian army and forcing the Russian tsar to flee to save his life. When in 1657 the scales in the war began to tilt in favor of Denmark, the Swedes began to seek peace with Russia (Valiesar Treaty, 1658).

The third and final stage began after the end of the armistice in 1658 between the Muscovite Kingdom and the Commonwealth. Russian troops fought fierce battles with Polish forces in Lithuania and Belarus, who defeated them at Vilnius, Kaunas and Grodno, but lost twice at Mogilev (1661, 1666) and Vitebsk (1664). On the Ukrainian lands, the Russians suffered constant defeats at Konotop (1659), Lyubar (1660) and Kushliki (1661).

A combination of factors in the south, including the apostasy of the Cossack allies of the Moscow Kingdom under the leadership of Vyhovsky, which isolated the Russians from the Poles, the Lubomirsky revolt, which weakened the power of King Jan II Casimir at a decisive moment, pushed Rzeczpospolita to conclude peace with Moscow. Back in 1664, the Tsar proposed to the Poles to start negotiations, which did not begin until 1667, when an armistice was signed in Andrusovo. Despite the losses, Muscovy came out of the war with large territorial gains, among which it is worth highlighting such key cities as Kiev and Smolensk.

Territorial losses of the Commonwealth are marked in pink
Smolensk land and left-bank Ukraine went to Russia

Albert von Wallenstein - commander of the Thirty Years War

Causes of the Thirty Years War

— Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back the positions lost during the Reformation from Protestantism
— The aspiration of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
— Fears of France, which saw in the Habsburg policy an infringement of its national interests
The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopoly control of the sea trade routes of the Baltic
— Selfish aspirations of numerous small European monarchs who hoped to snatch something for themselves in the general dump

Participants in the Thirty Years War

— Habsburg bloc - Spain and Portugal, Austria; Catholic League - some Catholic principalities and bishoprics of Germany: Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Würzburg
— Denmark, Sweden; Evangelical or Protestant Union: Electors Palatinate, Württemberg, Baden, Kulmbach, Ansbach, Palatinate-Neuburg, Landgrave of Hesse, Electors of Brandenburg and several imperial cities; France

Stages of the Thirty Years War

• Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624)
• Danish period (1625-1629)
• Swedish period (1630-1635)
• Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

The course of the Thirty Years War. Briefly

“There was a mastiff, two collies and a St. Bernard, a few bloodhounds and Newfoundlands, a hound, a French poodle, a bulldog, a few lapdogs and two mongrels. They sat patiently and thoughtfully. But then a young lady entered, leading a fox terrier on a chain; she left him between the bulldog and the poodle. The dog sat down and looked around for a minute. Then, without a hint of any reason, he grabbed the poodle by the front paw, jumped over the poodle and attacked the collie, (then) grabbed the bulldog's ear ... (Then) and all the other dogs started military operations. Large dogs fought among themselves; small dogs also fought with each other, and in free moments they bit big dogs by the paws " (Jerome K. Jerome "Three Men in One Boat")

17th century Europe

Something similar happened in Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Thirty Years' War began with a seemingly autonomous Czech uprising. But at the same time, Spain was at war with the Netherlands, in Italy the relations between the Duchies of Mantua, Monferrato and Savoy were sorted out, Muscovy and the Commonwealth clashed in 1632-1634, from 1617 to 1629 there were three major clashes between Poland and Sweden, Poland also fought with Transylvania, that in turn called on Turkey for help. In 1618 an anti-republican conspiracy was uncovered in Venice ...

• 1618 March - Czech Protestants appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor Matthew with a demand to stop the persecution of people on a religious basis
• 1618, May 23 - in Prague, participants in a Protestant congress committed violence against representatives of the emperor (the so-called "Second Prague Defenestration")
• 1618, summer - a palace coup in Vienna. Matthew was succeeded on the throne by Ferdinand of Styria, a fanatical Catholic
• 1618, autumn - the imperial army entered the Czech Republic

  The movements of Protestant and imperial armies in the Czech Republic, Moravia, the German lands of Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, sieges and the capture of cities (Ceske Budejovice, Pilsen, Palatinate, Bautzen, Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Bern -Zoom), battles (at the village of Sablat, on White Mountain, at Wimpfen, at Hoechst, at Stadtlohn, at Fleurus), diplomatic maneuvers were characteristic of the first stage of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1624). It ended with a victory for the Habsburgs. The Czech Protestant uprising failed, Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Kurpfalz, securing a foothold for another war with the Netherlands

• 1624, June 10 - Treaty at Compiegne between France, England and the Netherlands for an alliance against the imperial house of Habsburg
• 1624, July 9 - Denmark and Sweden joined the Treaty of Compiegne, fearing the growth of the influence of Catholics in northern Europe
• 1625, spring - Denmark opposed the imperial army
• 1625, April 25 - Emperor Ferdinand appointed Albrech von Wallenstein as commander of his army, who invited the emperor to feed his mercenary army at the expense of the theater population
• 1826, April 25 - Wallenstein's army defeated Mansfeld's Protestant forces at the Battle of Dessau
• 1626, August 27 - Tilly's Catholic army defeats the troops of Danish King Christian IV at the Battle of Lutter
• 1627 Spring - Wallenstein's army moved north of Germany and captured it, including the Danish peninsula of Jutland
• 1628, September 2 - at the battle of Wolgast, Wallenstein once again defeated Christian IV, forced to withdraw from the war

  On May 22, 1629, a peace treaty was signed in Lubeck between Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein returned the occupied lands to Christian, but made a promise not to interfere in German affairs. This ended the second stage of the Thirty Years War.

• 1629, March 6 - The Emperor issued an Edict of Restitution. fundamentally curtailed the rights of Protestants
• 1630, June 4 - Sweden entered the Thirty Years War
• 1630, September 13 - Emperor Ferdinand, who feared the strengthening of Wallenstein, dismissed him
• 1631, January 23 - the treaty between Sweden and France, according to which the Swedish king Gustav Adolphus undertook to keep an army of 30,000 in Germany, and France, represented by Cardinal Richelieu, to bear the costs of its maintenance
• 1631, May 31 - The Netherlands formed an alliance with Gustav Adolf, pledging to invade Spanish Flanders and subsidize the king's army
• 1532 April - Wallenstein was recalled by the emperor

  The third, Swedish, stage of the Thirty Years War was the most fierce. Protestants and Catholics had long been mixed in the armies, no one remembered how it all began. The main driving motive of the soldiers was profit. Therefore, they killed each other without mercy. Taking the fortress of Neu-Brandenburg by storm, the emperor's mercenaries completely killed his garrison. In response, the Swedes killed all prisoners in the capture of Frankfurt an der Oder. Magdeburg was completely burnt down, tens of thousands of its inhabitants died. On May 30, 1632, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army, Tilly, was killed during the battle at the fortress of Rhein, on November 16, the Swedish king Gustav Adolf was killed in the battle at Lützen, on February 25, 1634 Wallenstein was shot by his own guards. In the years 1630-1635, the main events of the Thirty Years' War took place in the lands of Germany. Swedes' victories alternated with defeats. The princes of Saxony, Brandenburg, and other Protestant principalities supported the Swedes and the emperor. The conflicting parties did not have the strength to persuade fortune to their own advantage. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the emperor and the Protestant princes of Germany in Prague, according to which the execution of the Edict on restitution was postponed for 40 years, the imperial army was formed by all the rulers of Germany, who were deprived of the right to conclude separate alliances among themselves

• 1635, May 30 - Peace of Prague
• 1635, May 21 - France entered the Thirty Years War to help Sweden, fearing the strengthening of the House of Habsburg
• 1636, May 4 - victory of the Swedish forces over the allied imperial army at the battle of Wittstock
• 1636, December 22 - the son of Ferdinand II Ferdinand III became emperor
• 1640, December 1 - Coup in Portugal. Portugal regained independence from Spain
• 1642, December 4 - Cardinal Ricillier, "soul" of French foreign policy, died
• 1643, May 19 - Battle of Rocroix, in which French troops defeated the Spaniards, marking the decline of Spain as a great power

  The last, Franco-Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War had the characteristic features of a world war. Military operations were conducted throughout Europe. The Duchies of Savoy, Mantuan, the Republic of Venice, Hungary intervened in the war. The hostilities were fought in Pomerania, Denmark, Austria, still in German lands, in the Czech Republic, Burgundy, Moravia, the Netherlands, in the Baltic Sea. In England, financially supporting Protestant states broke out. A popular uprising was raging in Normandy. Under these conditions, in 1644, peace negotiations began in the cities of Westphalia (an area in northwestern Germany) Osnabrück and Münster. Representatives of Sweden, German princes and the emperor met in Osanbrück, and the ambassadors of the emperor, France and the Netherlands in Münster. The negotiations, influenced by the results of the incessant battles, lasted 4 years

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Christianity needed a leader, not litigation and war. Therefore, Piccolomini believed that the new cathedral would not serve anyone's interests. Reforms, of course, should be carried out, but in the traditional way: for example, freeing churches and monasteries from the control of local landowners. However, such a program was by no means welcomed by the less noble princes of Germany. After all, Piccolomini argued, the papacy needs revenues to carry out effective international politics: in principle, the more income a pope receives, the more capable he is of supporting the crusades. And the less secular rulers can influence him, the more capable he will be to maintain justice in society.

The second task of Piccolomini was to preserve the power of those very princes who deprived the church and the empire of the most important resources. Piccolomini was troubled by leagues of cities and knights (such as the Prussian League), who were becoming more powerful than any single prince. If all the princes become powerless, the Holy Roman Empire will also become powerless; without strong princes, Christianity would be too weak to defend itself. Alas, Piccolomini did not see an opportunity to create an effective parliamentary government or give firmness to the Habsburg Emperor, Frederick III.

The third task was to convince the emperor, the kings of Hungary and Poland and the German princes to support the crusade against the Turks. Already in 1451, they attacked Belgrade, but then the city was saved by John Capistrano; their next target was clearly Constantinople, and when the great city was besieged in 1453, Piccolomini was instructed to negotiate a general peace in Europe so that the Germans, Poles and Hungarians could come together to help the besieged. Resolving the Prussian conflict suddenly became Piccolomini's priority.

Justice, alas, often moves slowly. Constantinople fell before the Prussian master could appear before the imperial court. The delays in the process were caused by the fact that someone robbed the League representatives on the way and stole their documents, as well as the fact that the Polish Ambassador warned that King Casimir would not participate in any crusade if someone else intervened in the affairs Prussia, which caused loud threats from the German princes. All that Piccolomini could achieve was to try to postpone the decision. As much as he disliked the leagues of cities, he did not need war now.

A letter written in October 1453 by Piccolomini to Cardinal Oleshnitsky, a strong personality behind the Polish throne, perfectly illustrates how Piccolomini tried to fool, persuade, intimidate his listeners and readers in order to force them to act according to his wishes. This message is a masterpiece of eloquence, classic quotes, wisdom, flattery to the addressee:

“I am well aware of the many ecclesiastical responsibilities that you carry in accordance with the office you hold. The responsibilities that the king himself shares with you. After him, already in one rank of cardinal, you are the second most important person in Poland. I know that no royal decree is issued without your approval, that the highest courts of the kingdom are eager to hear your opinion, that not a single issue of war and peace is resolved without your participation. "

In addition to praises addressed to its own address, the letter also contained ironic passages and reproaches addressed to the Poles for their attempts to seize the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. By the time the letter was completed, according to Piccolomini himself, it had turned into a book, but the very power of the presentation inspired confidence that it would be read by many more readers than the august bishop of Krakow would have liked.

Piccolomini's speech to the Reichstag is also one of the masterpieces of his oratory. As noted in his history, de Pruthenorum origine,he declared:

Piccolomini ended his speech by denying war in general, quoting the adage "Laws are silent when kings speak." His advice, however, was, as usual, rejected. In January 1454, the emperor ruled against the Prussian League. Now the Grand Master had to look for ways how to fulfill this decision, without recognizing the second part of the imperial verdict, which stated that the Prussian possessions of the Teutonic Order were part of the Holy Roman Empire. The German monasteries of the order were only too happy to make any concessions, just to save the order, especially if these concessions turned into an increase in the influence of the German master. The Grand Master, however, did not want to part with his sovereignty and power. Frederick III also did not intend to do anything that could involve him in the war. His path to success was through the marriage bed (Belle gerant alii, tu felix Austria nube -"Others start wars, and you, happy Austria - a wedding"): the emperor just recently got married.

As for Piccolomini's hopes for a crusade to liberate Constantinople, his labors came close to success when Pope Nicholas V passed away; now nothing could be done until a new pope was elected, who could choose different policies and other priorities. As a result, although the new Pope Calixtus III (1455-1458) was determined to revive the spirit of the crusades and elevated Piccolomini to cardinals so that he would have sufficient power to overcome the resistance, Christendom lost a whole year.

In February 1454, the union of the cities of Prussia and Pomorie (Prussian Union), with a mixed Polish-German population, refused to obey the Teutonic Order. The townspeople wanted to live according to the Magdeburg Law, as the cities of Poland and Lithuania had long lived. They demanded the right to an independent choice of officials, the collection of duties and taxes, the elimination of all vassal duties in relation to the feudal lords and the Order.

For two or three weeks, the militia of the union drove the order garrisons out of the cities, captured all the castles. After that, the leaders of the Prussian Union asked King Casimir to accept them into Poli. The king and his advisers reacted very favorably to this request, because the Order had long cut off Poland from the sea, it would be the height of folly not to use a convenient opportunity to eliminate this injustice.

It is clear that the chapter of the Order reasoned exactly the opposite, so he started a war with the rebellious townspeople and with the Polish king.

After eight years of campaigns with varying success, the Poles won a decisive victory at the Battle of Pukhov on September 17, 1462. True, for four more years the Order tried to turn the tide in its favor, but in the end, on October 19, 1466, the Second Thorn Peace was signed. Under its terms, Poland regained access to the Baltic: Eastern Pomerania and the mouth of the Vistula, together with Danzig (Gdansk). In addition, the Chelmsky and Mikhailovsky lands with Thorn (Torun) were returned. The territory of the Teutonic Order was halved, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish kingdom.

By the way, in the summer of 1454, King Casimir granted the Polish gentry - in order to ensure its massive participation in the war - the so-called "Neshava Statutes". This document confirmed all the previous privileges of the gentry, and also expanded its rights. In particular, with regard to the range of issues to be resolved at the Sejm and Povet Seimiks.

War with Hungary

It lasted 22 years - from 1471 to 1493. The reason was the election of Vladislav IV, the son of Casimir IV, king of Bohemia (Bohemia) - in opposition to the claims of the Hungarian king Matthias Hunyadi, or Matthew Corvinus (1443-1490). At the same time, King Hunyadi (Corvin) promised support to the knights of the Teutonic Order if they rebel; in addition, he persuaded the Crimean Tatars to war with Poland.

War with Crimea

Parallel to the war with the Hungarians, in 1487-1491. Poles fought with Crimea. Most of the fighting took place on the territory of Moldova and Galicia, but at some point the Tatars reached Lublin.

The end of the war was put by a major victory of the Poles in the battle of the Moldavian city of Zaslavl in 1491.

Basil II's war with Lithuania

(1445-1449)

In connection with all the events described above, both Lithuania and Moscow for a long time had neither the strength nor the desire to interfere in each other's affairs.

However, Prince Svidrigailo Algerdovich was twinned with Prince Yuri Dmitrievich, therefore, Vasily II had to be in alliance with the enemy of Svidrigailo, Prince Sigismund Keistutovich and his son Mikhail, while the murderer of Sigizmund, Prince Ivan Chartoryisky lived with Dmitry Shemyaky with him in Galya Shemyaka Moscow ".

Thinking, Vasily II took the side of Mikhail Sigismundovich in his struggle with Casimir IV. In 1446 he organized a campaign of two Tatar princes against Vyazma, Bryansk and other Lithuanian cities. The Tatars killed many people, took even more into captivity, ravaged the land almost to Smolensk and returned home with great booty.

Casimir decided to take revenge and sent a 7,000-strong army under the command of seven governors to Kaluga. The army stood near Kozelsk and near Kaluga, then with nothing went to Sukhodrov. Then they were met by a combined detachment of warriors from Mozhaisk, Vereya and Borovsk, numbering about a thousand people. The forces were unequal, the Muscovites were defeated, their commanders perished. However, this was the only battle with Lithuania during the reign of Vasily the Dark.

In 1449 (August 31), an agreement was concluded between the Grand Duke of Lithuania, King of Poland Casimir GU - on the one hand, the Grand Duke Vasily II, his brothers Ivan Andreevich and Mikhail Andreevich - on the other. Prince Vasily undertook to live with Casimir in "eternal peace", to act always at the same time, "to want good for him and his land wherever it may be." Casimir assumed the same obligations. Casimir pledged not to accept Dmitry Shemyaka, and Vasily - Mikhail Sigismundovich.

In the event of an attack by the Tatars, the princes and governors of Lithuania and Moscow pledged to defend themselves at the same time.

This agreement actually stopped the further expansion of Lithuania to the East. In the following decades, already Moscow Russia began to openly claim its lands.

After the treaty of 1449, there were really no wars for a long time. And Mikhail Sigizmundovich, who appeared in Moscow after the Lithuanians knocked him out of Kiev, was first put under house arrest, and then poisoned - either at the end of 1451, or at the beginning of 1452.

After the clerk Beda poisoned Dmitry Shemyaka on July 17, 1453 in Novgorod, his son Ivan had to flee to Lithuania, Casimir IV gave him the cities of Rylsk and Novgorod-Seversky as his inheritance. Later they were inherited by Vasily, the son of Ivan Dmitrievich, who became the prince of Novgorod-Seversky.

In the summer of 1454, Vasily II went on a campaign against Ivan Andreevich Mozhaisky. He at one time was an ally of Shemyaka, but a long time ago he made peace with Vasily II. Now the Moscow sovereign decided that the opportune moment had come to remember his old sins. The army of Vasily II took Mozhaisk, and Prince Ivan Andreyevich with his wife, sons Andrey and Semyon, with the boyars and servants fled to Lithuania. The fugitive prince of Mozhaisk, Kazimir IV, first granted Bryansk, then changed it to Starodub and Gomel.