Representatives of the lower class of the population. Medieval society: classes and estates. Estates in the Russian Empire

In any society that has crossed the stage of primitiveness and is at the stage of civilization, inequality necessarily appears. Society is divided into different groups of people, with some groups having a high position in society and others having a low position.

Historians have put forward two ways to distinguish such groups of people in medieval society. The first way is to identify classes, that is, groups of people who have strictly defined rights and responsibilities in society, transmitted by inheritance. Estates are closed: it is very difficult or almost impossible to move from one estate to another. This means that in which class a person was born, he, as a rule, lived his entire life. In the Middle Ages there were three classes, each of which had a specific occupation. The estates were given numbers according to the prestige and importance of this occupation. The people of the Middle Ages clearly knew which class they belonged to. The idea of ​​division into classes was supported by Christian teaching: it was believed that God himself identified three classes (therefore, the number of the class determined his closeness to God) and assigned each person a place in one of them. Therefore, striving to move from one class to another meant opposing “God’s will.” Only the first estate was replenished by people from other classes, although belonging to the class of those fighting and working was considered hereditary. In some rare cases, the right to move from one class to another was granted by the king.

The first estate was considered closest to God, which consisted entirely of the clergy (people who served in churches and monasteries: monks, priests, bishops and higher up to the Pope). It was called “prayers” because its main service to society was considered to be that it atone for the sins of people belonging to other classes before God and took care of their spiritual healing. The clergy were supposed to serve as an example of faith and morality for the whole society. The second estate was called “warring” and consisted of warrior-knights of various levels: from the richest and most influential (dukes and counts) to the poor who had difficulty finding money to buy a horse. The main merit of the representatives of the second estate to society was that they shed their blood in battles, protecting the fatherland, the king and people belonging to other classes from external enemies. Finally, farthest from God was the so-called “third estate,” which included all other people: the majority were peasants (they were engaged in agriculture and partly in crafts), and the minority were townspeople (they were also called burghers, they were engaged in crafts and trade), people of “free professions” (wandering artists, teachers, doctors and others), etc. The third estate was also called “workers”, since the people included in it created food and everything necessary for themselves and the first two estates with their labor. It was only through the hard work of the third estate that the other two could fulfill their duties.

But the allocation of classes did not take into account the most important thing for the Middle Ages: who owned the main wealth for that era - land. Therefore, historians have put forward another way to distinguish groups in medieval society - to distinguish classes. Classes are distinguished not on the basis of the rights and duties of each person, but on the basis of what kind of property a person had. Historians have identified two main classes in medieval society: the class of feudal lords, whose representatives owned land, and the class of peasants who did not have their own land. In order to feed himself, the peasant was forced to rent land from the feudal lord, but for this he was obliged to bear special duties in favor of the feudal lord. There were two of these duties: either the peasant gave part of the product received on the leased plot (harvest, meat, etc.) (such a duty was called quitrent), or he had to work several days a week on the land of the feudal lord (on a plot that the feudal lord did not handed out leases to the peasants) - this duty was called corvee (the word meant that the land belonged to the “master” - the feudal lord). The feudal class included the king, knights and the church (clergy), since they were the ones who owned the land in the Middle Ages.

Over time, the feudal lords attached the peasants to the land: if earlier a peasant could move from one feudal lord to another when he did not like the increase in corvee and quitrent, now the peasant, together with his family, was always forced to work for his master. Moreover, the feudal lords received judicial power over the peasants (disputes of all peasants living on the feudal lord’s estate were settled by the feudal lord himself) and the right to interfere in the personal lives of the peasants (to allow or not to allow them to move, get married, etc.). This complete dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord (land, judicial, and personal) was called serfdom.

Questions:

1. Make a table “Differences between estates and classes”, independently selecting criteria from the studied text

2. Fill out the diagram: “Two ways of dividing medieval society into groups”

3. Why did the estates receive numbers from first to third?

4. Estates in the Middle Ages were divided into higher and lower: the higher ones were honorable, their representatives had more rights than responsibilities, and the lower ones did the opposite. Think about which classes belonged to the higher and which to the lower?

5. Which class was in the most difficult position? What demands did the representatives of this class put forward?

6. What was considered the main wealth in the Middle Ages? Justify your answer with existing knowledge about the Middle Ages.

7. Which classes owned land in the Middle Ages and therefore can be considered a class of feudal lords?

8. What are duties? What were the main duties in the Middle Ages?

9. Why were attempts to move from one class to another considered sinful?

10. Did wealth influence what class a person belonged to?

11. How were the relations between the classes of peasants and feudal lords?

12. What is serfdom?

13. Remember from what word did the name feudalism and the class of feudal lords come from?

14. In the Middle Ages, peasants did not own land, but at the end of the ancient era, many peasants had land (in Rome, many freed slaves received land; among the Germans, land belonged to peasant communities). Think and name several ways in which peasants lost their land, and feudal lords received it.

Estates and classes.

The entire urban and rural population was divided “according to the difference in rights of state” into four main categories: nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.

The nobility remained the privileged class. It shared into personal and hereditary.

Right to personal nobility, which was not inherited, received by representatives of various classes who were in the civil service and had the lowest rank in the Table of Ranks. By serving the Fatherland, one could receive hereditary, i.e., inherited, nobility. To do this, one had to receive a certain rank or award. The emperor could grant hereditary nobility for successful entrepreneurial or other activities.

City dwellers- hereditary honorary citizens, merchants, townspeople, artisans.

Rural inhabitants, Cossacks and other people engaged in agriculture.

The country was in the process of forming a bourgeois society with its two the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. At the same time, the predominance of semi-feudal agriculture in the Russian economy contributed to the preservation and two main classes of feudal society - landowners and peasants.

The growth of cities, the development of industry, transport and communications, and the increase in the cultural needs of the population lead to the second half of the 19th century. to increase the proportion of people professionally engaged in mental work and artistic creativity - intelligentsia: engineers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, journalists, etc.

Peasantry.

The peasants are still constituted the vast majority population of the Russian Empire. Peasants, both former serfs and state-owned ones, were part of self-governing rural societies - communities Several rural societies made up the volost.

Community members were connected mutual guarantee in paying taxes and fulfilling duties. Therefore, there was a dependence of the peasants on the community, manifested primarily in the restriction of freedom of movement.

For the peasants there was special volost court, whose members were also elected by the village assembly. At the same time, the volost courts made their decisions not only on the basis of legal norms, but also guided by customs. Often these courts punished peasants for such offenses as wasting money, drunkenness, and even witchcraft. In addition, peasants were subject to certain punishments that had long been abolished for other classes. For example, volost courts had the right to sentence members of their class who had not reached 60 years of age to flogging.

Russian peasants revered their elders, viewing them as bearers of experience and traditions. This attitude extended to the emperor and served as a source of monarchism, faith in the “tsar-father” - an intercessor, guardian of truth and justice.

Russian peasants professed Orthodoxy. Unusually harsh natural conditions and the associated hard work - suffering, the results of which did not always correspond to the efforts expended, the bitter experience of lean years immersed the peasants in the world of superstitions, signs and rituals.

Liberation from serfdom brought to the village big changes:

• P First of all, the stratification of the peasants intensified. The horseless peasant (if he was not engaged in other non-agricultural work) became a symbol of rural poverty. At the end of the 80s. in European Russia, 27% of households were horseless. Having one horse was considered a sign of poverty. There were about 29% of such farms. At the same time, from 5 to 25% of owners had up to ten horses. They bought large land holdings, hired farm laborers and expanded their farms.

• a sharp increase in the need for money. The peasants had to pay redemption payments and a poll tax, have funds for zemstvo and secular fees, for rent payments for land and for repaying bank loans. The majority of peasant farms were involved in market relations. The main source of peasant income was the sale of bread. But due to low yields, peasants were often forced to sell grain to the detriment of their own interests. The export of grain abroad was based on the malnutrition of the village residents and was rightly called by contemporaries “hungry export.”

• Poverty, hardships associated with redemption payments, lack of land and other troubles firmly tied the bulk of the peasants to the community. After all, it guaranteed its members mutual support. In addition, the distribution of land in the community helped the middle and poorest peasants to survive in case of famine. Allotments were distributed among community members interstriped, and were not brought together in one place. Each community member had a small plot (strip) in different places. In a dry year, a plot located in a lowland could produce a quite bearable harvest; in rainy years, a plot on a hillock helped out.

There were peasants committed to the traditions of their fathers and grandfathers, to the community with its collectivism and security, and there were also “new” peasants who wanted to farm independently at their own risk. Many peasants went to work in the cities. The long-term isolation of men from the family, from village life and rural work led to an increased role of women not only in economic life, but also in peasant self-government.

The most important problem of Russia on the eve of the 20th century. was to turn the peasants - the bulk of the country's population - into politically mature citizens, respecting both their own and others' rights and capable of active participation in public life.

Nobility.

After the peasant reforms In 1861, the stratification of the nobility was rapidly progressing due to the active influx of people from other segments of the population into the privileged class.

Gradually, the most privileged class lost its economic advantages. After the peasant reform of 1861, the area of ​​land owned by the nobles decreased by an average of 0.68 million dessiatinas 8* per year. The number of landowners among the nobles was declining. Moreover, almost half of the landowners had estates that were considered small. In the post-reform period, most of the landowners continued to use semi-feudal forms of farming and went bankrupt.

Simultaneously Some of the nobles widely participated in entrepreneurial activities: in railway construction, industry, banking and insurance. Funds for business were received from the redemption under the reform of 1861, from the leasing of land and on collateral. Some nobles became owners of large industrial enterprises, took prominent positions in companies, and became owners of shares and real estate. A significant part of the nobles joined the ranks of owners of small commercial and industrial establishments. Many acquired the profession of doctors, lawyers, and became writers, artists, and performers. At the same time, some of the nobles went bankrupt, joining the lower strata of society.

Thus, the decline of the landowner economy accelerated the stratification of the nobility and weakened the influence of the landowners in the state. In the second half of the 19th century. the nobles lost their dominant position in the life of Russian society: political power was concentrated in the hands of officials, economic power in the hands of the bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia became the ruler of thoughts, and the class of once all-powerful landowners gradually disappeared.

Bourgeoisie.

The development of capitalism in Russia led to the growth of the bourgeoisie. Continuing to be officially listed as nobles, merchants, bourgeois, and peasants, representatives of this class played an increasingly important role in the life of the country. Since the time of the “railway fever” of the 60s and 70s. The bourgeoisie was actively replenished at the expense of officials. By serving on the boards of private banks and industrial enterprises, officials provided a link between state power and private production. They helped industrialists obtain lucrative orders and concessions.

The period of the formation of the Russian bourgeoisie coincided with the active activity of the populists within the country and with the growth of the revolutionary struggle of the Western European proletariat. Therefore, the bourgeoisie in Russia looked at the autocratic government as its protector from revolutionary uprisings.

And although the interests of the bourgeoisie were often infringed by the state, they did not dare to take active action against the autocracy.

Some of the founders of famous commercial and industrial families - S.V. Morozov, P.K. Konovalov - remained illiterate until the end of their days. But they tried to give their children a good education, including a university education. Sons were often sent abroad to study commercial and industrial practices.

Many representatives of this new generation of the bourgeoisie sought to support scientists and representatives of the creative intelligentsia, and invested money in the creation of libraries and art galleries. A. A. Korzinkin, K. T. Soldatenkov, P. K. Botkin and D. P. Botkin, S. M. Tretyakov and P. M. Tretyakov, S. I. played a significant role in the expansion of charity and patronage of the arts. Mamontov.

Proletariat.

One more The main class of industrial society was the proletariat. The proletariat included all hired workers, including those employed in agriculture and crafts, but its core were factory, mining and railway workers - the industrial proletariat. His education took place simultaneously with the industrial revolution. By the mid-90s. XIX century About 10 million people were employed in the wage labor sector, of which 1.5 million were industrial workers.

The working class of Russia had a number of features:

• He was closely connected with the peasantry. A significant part of the factories and factories were located in villages, and the industrial proletariat itself was constantly replenished with people from the village. A hired factory worker was, as a rule, a first-generation proletarian and maintained a close connection with the village.
• Representatives became workers different nationalities.
• In Russia there was a significantly greater concentration proletariat in large enterprises than in other countries.

Life of workers.

In factory barracks (dormitories), they settled not according to the workshops, but according to the provinces and districts from which they came. The workers from one locality were headed by a master, who recruited them to the enterprise. Workers had difficulty getting used to urban conditions. Separation from home often led to a drop in moral level and drunkenness. The workers worked long hours and, in order to send money home, huddled in damp and dark rooms and ate poorly.

Workers' speeches for improving their situation in the 80-90s. became more numerous, sometimes they took on acute forms, accompanied by violence against factory management, destruction of factory premises and clashes with the police and even with troops. The largest strike was that broke out on January 7, 1885 at Morozov’s Nikolskaya manufactory in the city of Orekhovo-Zuevo.

The labor movement during this period was a response to the specific actions of “their” factory owners: increasing fines, lowering prices, forced payment of wages in goods from the factory store, etc.

Clergy.

Church ministers - the clergy - constituted a special class, divided into black and white clergy. The black clergy - monks - took on special obligations, including leaving the "world". The monks lived in numerous monasteries.

The white clergy lived in the “world”; their main task was to perform worship and religious preaching. From the end of the 17th century. a procedure was established according to which the place of a deceased priest was inherited, as a rule, by his son or another relative. This contributed to the transformation of the white clergy into a closed class.

Although the clergy in Russia belonged to a privileged part of society, rural priests, who made up the vast majority of it, eked out a miserable existence, as they fed on their own labor and at the expense of parishioners, who themselves often barely made ends meet. In addition, as a rule, they were burdened with large families.

The Orthodox Church had its own educational institutions. At the end of the 19th century. in Russia there were 4 theological academies, in which about a thousand people studied, and 58 seminaries, training up to 19 thousand future clergy.

Intelligentsia.

At the end of the 19th century. Of the more than 125 million inhabitants of Russia, 870 thousand could be classified as intelligentsia. The country had over 3 thousand scientists and writers, 4 thousand engineers and technicians, 79.5 thousand teachers and 68 thousand private teachers, 18.8 thousand doctors, 18 thousand artists, musicians and actors.

In the first half of the 19th century. The ranks of the intelligentsia were replenished mainly at the expense of the nobles.

Some of the intelligentsia were never able to find practical application for their knowledge. Neither industry, nor zemstvos, nor other institutions could provide employment for many university graduates whose families experienced financial difficulties. Receiving a higher education was not a guarantee of an increase in living standards, and therefore, social status. This gave rise to a mood of protest.

But besides material reward for their work, the most important need of the intelligentsia is freedom of expression, without which true creativity is unthinkable. Therefore, in the absence of political freedoms in the country, the anti-government sentiments of a significant part of the intelligentsia intensified.

Cossacks.

The emergence of the Cossacks was associated with the need to develop and protect the newly acquired outlying lands. For their service, the Cossacks received land from the government. Therefore, a Cossack is both a warrior and a peasant.

At the end of the 19th century. there were 11 Cossack troops

In villages and villages there were special primary and secondary Cossack schools, where much attention was paid to the military training of students.

In 1869, the nature of land ownership in the Cossack regions was finally determined. Communal ownership of stanitsa lands was consolidated, of which each Cossack received a share of 30 dessiatines. The remaining lands constituted military reserves. It was intended mainly to create new village sites as the Cossack population grew. Forests, pastures, and reservoirs were in public use.

Conclusion:

In the second half of the 19th century. there was a breakdown of class barriers and the formation of new groups of society along economic and class lines. The new entrepreneurial class - the bourgeoisie - includes representatives of the merchant class, successful peasant entrepreneurs, and the nobility. The class of hired workers - the proletariat - is replenished primarily at the expense of peasants, but a tradesman, the son of a village priest, and even a “noble gentleman” were not uncommon in this environment. There is a significant democratization of the intelligentsia, even the clergy is losing its former isolation. And only the Cossacks remain to a greater extent adherents to their former way of life.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….3

1. Formation of estates in Russia at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries......5

2. The class system of Russia at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries………….…..6

2.1. Nobility………………………………………………………….…6

2.2. Bourgeois………………………………………………………………………………….10

2.3. Peasants…………………………………………………………….13

2.4. Clergy……………………………………………………….17

Conclusion……………………………………………………………..18

List of references…………………………………19

Introduction

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, with a significant lag behind the West, the class system finally took shape in Russia. The formation of the domestic class structure is characteristic of the era of “enlightened absolutism,” which aimed to preserve the order in which each class fulfills its purpose and function. The elimination of privileges and the equalization of rights, from this point of view, were understood as a “general confusion” that should not be allowed.

The Russian class structure was formed from groups of Moscow society and consisted of 4 classes. The class system included: the gentry (nobility), the clergy, the burghers (urban townspeople) and the peasantry. The main feature of the Russian class system of that time was the presence and inheritance of personal rights, wealth and corporate rights and obligations.

The relevance of this topic lies in the need to consider the class system of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, in order to study the composition of the classes that emerged at that time in the Russian state, their features, rights, and differences. Consideration of this topic from various points of view makes it possible to clarify the question of why the class system developed in Russia much later than in European countries.

The object of study of this work is the process of formation of the class system in Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, its composition and characteristics. The subject of study is Russia's policy on the formation of the class structure through the adoption of regulations (Certificate of Complaint, Table of Ranks, etc.).

The chronological scope of the topic being studied is quite wide - the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. At this time, reforms are underway in Russia, along with this, a revolution is taking place in the social life of society - the legalized stratification of society into classes.

Studying this topic involves achieving the following goal - to consider the class system of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, and determine its role in the post-reform structure of the social and economic life of the country.

The formulated goal involves solving the following tasks:

To characterize the social and internal political situation in Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries;

Determine the prerequisites for the stratification of society;

Find out in accordance with which regulations the stratification in society occurred;

Consider the class system of Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. (nobility, philistinism, peasantry and clergy);

Study the features of each class: rights (personal, property, exclusive, corporate, etc.), position in society, self-government, etc.;

Analyze the information received and draw conclusions.

When writing the work, such research methods as the historical-comparative method were used (the rights of each class in relation to others, the organization of self-government within each class, etc. are compared); historical-typological method (a certain period was identified - the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries - and it was determined what changes occurred during this period on the basis of certain characteristics: in the situation in the country before the formation of the estates and after, in the internecine relations of the estates, in the social life of the country etc.).

This topic is widely covered in historiography. This work used the works of such authors as Belkovets L.P., Belkovets V.V., Vladimirsky - Budanov M.F., Efremova N.N., Indova E.I., Isaev V.I., Rogov V. O.A., Semevsky V.I., et al.

The structure of the work is as follows. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, and a list of references.

1. Formation of estates in Russia at the end XVIII -beginning XIX centuries

The formation of the domestic class structure is characteristic of the era of “enlightened absolutism,” which aimed to preserve the order in which each class fulfills its purpose and function. The elimination of privileges and equalization of rights, from this point of view, were understood as “general confusion”, which should not be allowed.

The final formation of estates in Russia occurred during the reign of Catherine II. It was Catherine who determined the meaning, rights and responsibilities of different classes. The program documents were the Charters granted to the nobility and cities.

In 1785, the Charter of Grant was granted to the nobility, which defined the rights and privileges of the noble class, which was considered the main support of the throne after Pugachev’s rebellion. The nobility finally took shape as a privileged class. The nobility turned into the politically dominant class in the state.

In the same 1785, the Charter to the cities was promulgated, completing the organization of the so-called urban society. This society was made up of ordinary people belonging to the tax-paying classes, that is, merchants, petty bourgeois and artisans.

The privileges of townspeople against the backdrop of noble permissiveness seemed imperceptible; city government bodies were strictly controlled by the tsarist administration.

A system of estate courts was created: for each estate (nobles, townspeople, state peasants) their own special judicial institutions were introduced. In the districts, district courts were introduced for nobles, city magistrates for merchants and townspeople, and lower reprisals for foreigners and state peasants.

2. The class system of Russia at the end XVIII -beginning XIX centuries

2.1. Nobility

The nobility was formed from different categories of service people (boyars, okolnichi, clerks, clerks, children of boyars, etc.), received the name of the nobility under Peter I, was renamed the nobility under Catherine II (in the acts of the Statutory Commission of 1767), and transformed over the course of a century from the service class to the ruling, privileged class. Some of the former service people (nobles and children of boyars), settled on the outskirts of the state, were not included in this class by the decrees of Peter I in 1698–1703, formalizing the nobility, but were transferred under the name of one-lords to the position of state-owned peasants.

The leveling of the position of feudal lords of all ranks was completed by the decree of Peter I of 1714 “On Single Inheritance”, according to which estates were equated to estates and assigned to the nobles on the right of ownership. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” established methods for obtaining the nobility by length of service. She also secured the status of the ruling class for the gentry.

According to the “Table of Ranks”, everyone in the public service (civil, military, naval) was divided into 14 ranks or ranks, from the highest field marshal and chancellor to the lowest - adjutant to lieutenants and collegiate registrar. All persons from 14th to 8th rank became personal, and from 8th rank - hereditary nobles. Hereditary nobility was passed on to the wife, children and distant descendants in the male line. Daughters who got married acquired the class status of their husband (if he was higher). Until 1874, of the children born before receiving hereditary nobility, only one son received the status of a father, the rest were registered as “honorary citizens” (1832), after 1874 - all.

Under Peter I, the service of nobles with compulsory education began at the age of 15 and was for life. Anna Ioanovna somewhat eased their situation by limiting their service to 25 years and placing its beginning at the age of 20. She also allowed one of the sons or brothers in the noble family to stay at home and take care of the house.

In 1762, Peter III, who stayed on the throne for a short time, abolished by a special decree not only the compulsory education of nobles, but also the compulsory service of the nobility. And Catherine II’s 1785 “Certificate on the Rights and Advantages of the Russian Nobility” finally turned the nobility into a “noble” class.

So, the main sources of the noble class in the 18th century. were - birth and length of service. Longevity included the acquisition of nobility through a grant and indigenat for foreigners (according to the “Table of Ranks”), through receiving an order (according to the “Charter of Grant” of Catherine II). In the 19th century higher education and an academic degree will be added to them.

Belonging to the rank of nobility was secured by an entry in the “Velvet Book”, established in 1682 during the abolition of localism, and from 1785 by inclusion in the local (provincial) lists - noble books, divided into 6 parts (according to the sources of the nobility): grant, military length of service, civil service, indigenous, title (order), prescription. Since Peter I, the estate was subordinate to a special department - the Heraldry Office, and from 1748 - to the Department of Heraldry under the Senate.

Rights and benefits of the nobility:

1. Personal rights: the right to noble dignity, the right to protection of honor, personality and life, exemption from taxes, duties and corporal punishment, from compulsory public service, etc.

2. Property rights: full and unlimited right of ownership to acquire, use and inherit any type of property. The exclusive right of the nobles to buy villages and own land and peasants was established; the nobles had the right to open industrial enterprises (build factories and factories) on their estates, develop minerals on their land, trade the products of their lands in bulk, purchase houses in cities and conduct maritime trade.

At first it was used to designate a board, a corporation, and only then was it transferred to corporately organized groups of people.

A coherent system of estates was never formed in the Russian Empire, so some researchers (M. Confino) believe that estates of the Western European type never existed in Russia at all.

Classification at the beginning of the 20th century

Reforms of Alexander II

Notes

Sources

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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Books

• Estates, public service and governing bodies of the Russian Empire, Valery Fedorchenko, The manual provides characteristics of the estates that developed in society during the 18th–19th centuries; the system of military and civil service is considered; shows the formation of the ideation of organs... Category: Educational literature Publisher:

The first legislative assemblies of Europe were based on the class principle; typical examples were the tricameral Estates General in France and the bicameral Parliament of England.

Etymology

The lowest stratum of the population consisted of unfree people, who were called serfs and smerds.

• free;
• attached;
• not free.

Russian empire

After the abolition of serfdom, significant changes occurred in the country’s social structure:

• the nobility lost free labor;
• The clergy received more privileges - exemption from military service, exemption from corporal punishment, preferential right to education.

Class structure of modern Russia

see also

Notes

1. Estate / Sedov L. A. // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - 3rd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.
2. Decree on the destruction of estates and civil ranks // Decrees of Soviet power: collection. doc. / Institute of Marxism-Leninism under the CPSU Central Committee; Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences: [multi-volume edition]. - M.: Politizdat, 1957-1997. - T. 1: October 25, 1917 - March 16, 1918 / prepared.